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Cynthia Witthoft Song: Death Came from the Air Album: Drunken Orgy In Hell - 2004 - Air traffic control (ATC) involves communication with aircraft to help maintain... More» separation — that is, they ensure that aircraft are sufficiently far enough apart horizontally or vertically for no risk of collision. Controllers may co-ordinate position reports provided by pilots, or in high traffic areas (such as the United States) they may use RADAR to see aircraft positions. There are generally four different types of ATC: control towers (including tower, ground control, clearance delivery, and other services), which control aircraft within a small distance (typically 10-15 km horizontal, and 1,000 m vertical) of an airport. terminal controllers, who control aircraft in a wider area (typically 50-80 km) around busy airports centre controllers, who control aircraft enroute between airports oceanic controllers, who control aircraft over international waters between continents, generally without radar service ATC is especially important for aircraft flying under Instrument flight rules (IFR), where they may be in weather conditions that do not allow the pilots to see other aircraft. However, in very high-traffic areas, especially near major airports, aircraft flying under Visual flight rules (VFR) are also required to follow instructions from ATC. In addition to separation from other aircraft, ATC may provide weather advisories, terrain separation, navigation assistance, and other services to pilots, depending on their workload. ATC does not control all flights. The majority of VFR flights in North America are not required to talk to ATC (unless they are passing through a busy terminal area or using a major airport), and in many areas, such as northern Canada, ATC services are not available even for IFR flights at lower altitudes. Accident Analysis is a form of Behavioural Systems analysis. The main object of interest is to identify causes for unwanted behaviour of systems. Accident Analysis is performed in four steps: Fact gathering After an accident happened a forensic process starts to gather all possibly relevant facts that may contribute to understanding the accident. Fact Analysis After the forensic process has been completed or at least delivered some results the facts are put together to give a "big picture." The history of the accident is reconstructed and checked for consistency and plausibility. Conclusion Drawing If the accident history is sufficiently informative conclusions can be drawn about causation and contributing factors. Countermeasures In some cases the development of countermeasures is desired or recommendations have to be issued to prevent further accidents of the same kind. There exist numerous forms of Accident Analysis methods. These can be divided into three categories (in alphabetical order): Causal Analysis uses the principle of causality to determine the course of events. Though people casually speak of a "chain of events" results from Causal Analysis usually have the form of directed a-cyclic graphs. The nodes being events and the edges the cause-effect relations. Methods of Causal Analysis differ in their respective notion of causation. Expert Analysis relies on the knowledge and experience of field experts. This form of analysis usually lacks a rigorous (formal/semiformal) methodological approach. This usually affects falsify-ability and objectivity of analyses. This is of importance when conclusions are heavily disputed among experts. Organisational Analysis relies on systemic theories of organisation. Most theories imply that if a systems behaviour stayed within the bounds of the ideal organisation then no accidents can occur. Organisational Analysis can be falsified and results from analyses can be checked for objectivity. Choosing an organisational theory for accident analysis comes implies the assumption that the system to be analysed conforms to that theory.  «Less

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